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Introduction
In physics, energy is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light. Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The unit of measurement in the International System of Units (SI) of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of one metre against a force of one newton.
Common forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object's position in a force field (gravitational, electric or magnetic), the elastic energy stored by stretching solid objects, the chemical energy released when a fuel burns, the radiant energy carried by light, and the thermal energy due to an object's temperature.
Mass and energy are closely related. Due to mass–energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy. For example, after heating an object, its increase in energy could in principle be measured as a small increase in mass, with a sensitive enough scale.
Living organisms require energy to stay alive, such as the energy humans get from food and oxygen. Human civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The processes of Earth's climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the Sun and the geothermal energy contained within the earth. (Full article...)
Selected article
The production of renewable energy in Scotland is a topic that has come to the fore in technical, economic, and political terms during the opening years of the 21st century. The natural resource base for renewable energy is high by European, and even global standards, with the most important potential sources being wind, wave, and tide. Renewables produced the equivalent of 97.4% of Scotland's electricity consumption in 2020, mostly from the country's wind power.
In 2015, Scotland generated 59% of its electricity consumption through renewable sources, exceeding the country's goal of 50% renewable electricity by that year. At the start of 2020, Scotland had 11.8 gigawatts (GW) of installed renewable electricity capacity, which produced approximately 25% of total UK renewable generation (119,000 GWh). In 2018, Scotland exported over 28 per cent of generation and in 2019 renewable electricity generation made up 90% of gross electricity consumption. In decreasing order of capacity, Scotland's renewable generation comes from onshore wind, hydropower, offshore wind, solar PV and biomass. (Full article...)
Selected image
Photo credit: NASA/TRACE
Plasma being channeled by the magnetic field loops of a sunspot.
Did you know?
- Buildings constructed to the German Passivhaus standard use 75% to 95% less energy for space heating and cooling than current new buildings in the United States?
- Crossing 4,000 km (2,500 miles), the Druzhba pipeline is the world's longest oil pipeline?
- Coal is ground to a powder before being burnt in fossil fuel power plants?
- Compact fluorescent lamps (pictured) use about 1/4 of the energy of normal incandescent light bulbs, and pay for themselves after about 500 hours of use?
- Nuclear power in France produces 78% of all the country's electricity - more than in any other nation?
- Positive lightning bolts are typically six to ten times more powerful than normal lightning — and aircraft are not designed to withstand them?
- Dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy which permeates all of space?
Selected biography
Born in Texas, Hubbert studied geology, mathematics, and physics at the University of Chicago. He pursued his Ph.D. while working for the Amerada Petroleum Company, then worked for the Shell Oil Company from 1943 until 1964. On leaving Shell he became a senior research geophysicist for the United States Geological Survey until retiring in 1976. Hubbert was also a professor at Stanford University and at UC Berkeley.
Hubbert is most well-known for his studies on the capacities of oil fields and natural gas reserves. He predicted that, for any given geographical area, the rate of petroleum production over time would resemble a bell curve. At the 1956 meeting of the American Petroleum Institute, Hubbert predicted that United States petroleum production would peak in the late 1960s or early 1970s. He became famous when his prediction came true in 1970.
In 1974, Hubbert projected that global oil production would peak in 1995 "if current trends continue". Various subsequent predictions have been made by others as trends have fluctuated in the intervening years. Hubbert's theory, and its implications for the world economy, remain controversial.
In the news
- 13 May 2022 – Enlargement of NATO
- RAO Nordic, a subsidiary of Russian energy company Inter RAO, announces it will suspend deliveries of electricity to Finland, saying it has not been paid for prior deliveries. The suspension comes as Russia threatens retaliation if Finland joins NATO. (BBC News)
- 1 May 2022 – International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War
- Hungary, a member of the European Union, says that it will veto any sanctions that would restrict energy imports from Russia. Unanimity among the 27 EU members is required to introduce sanctions. (Bloomberg)
- 27 April 2022 – Russia in the European energy sector
- 2022 Russia–European Union gas dispute
- Gazprom announces that it has "completely suspended gas supplies" to the gas companies of Poland and Bulgaria "due to [the] absence of payments in roubles". Bulgaria, Poland, and the European Union condemn the suspension. (Reuters) (Reuters)
- The suspension of gas to Poland and Bulgaria causes natural gas prices to increase and also causes the Russian ruble to reach a 2 year high against the Euro in Moscow trade. (Reuters) (Reuters) (Natural Gas Intelligence)
General images
A solar photovoltaic system array on a rooftop in Hong Kong (from Solar power)
Wind turbines in Xinjiang, China
Nuclear waste flasks generated by the United States during the Cold War are stored underground at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in New Mexico. The facility is seen as a potential demonstration for storing spent fuel from civilian reactors. (from Nuclear power)
Dry cask storage vessels storing spent nuclear fuel assemblies (from Nuclear power)
Storage tanks and towers at Shell Puget Sound Refinery (Shell Oil Company), Anacortes, Washington (from Oil refinery)
A micro-hydro facility in Vietnam (from Hydroelectricity)
Part of the 354 MW Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) parabolic trough solar complex in northern San Bernardino County, California (from Solar power)
A geothermal power station in Negros Oriental, Philippines (from Geothermal power)
World map showing where people without access to electricity lived in 2016—mainly in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian subcontinent (from Sustainable energy)
Since 1985, the proportion of electricity generated from low-carbon sources has increased only slightly. Advances in deploying renewables have been mostly offset by declining shares of nuclear power. (from Sustainable energy)
US Natural Gas Marketed Production 1900 to 2012 (US EIA data) (from Natural gas)
The oil refinery in Haifa, Israel, is capable of processing about 9 million tons (66 million barrels) of crude oil a year. Its two cooling towers are landmarks of the city's skyline. (from Oil refinery)
Natural gas extraction by countries in cubic meters per year around 2013 (from Natural gas)
Australia (from Solar power)
The launching ceremony of the USS Nautilus January 1954. In 1958 it would become the first vessel to reach the North Pole. (from Nuclear power)
Utility cycling infrastructure, such as this bike lane in Vancouver, encourages sustainable transport. (from Sustainable energy)
Cooling towers at a geothermal power plant in Larderello, Italy
Burning of natural gas coming out of the ground in Taiwan (from Natural gas)
Net metering, unlike a feed-in tariff, requires only one meter, but it must be bi-directional. (from Solar power)
Construction of the Salt Tankswhich provide efficient thermal energy storage so that output can be provided after sunset, and output can be scheduled to meet demand requirements. The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is designed to provide six hours of energy storage. This allows the plant to generate about 38% of its rated capacity over the course of a year. (from Solar power)
Construction close to high pressure gas transmission pipelines is discouraged, often with standing warning signs. (from Natural gas)
The current locations across the U.S. where nuclear waste is stored (from Energy policy)
Actual annual deployments of solar PV vs predictions by the IEA for the period 2002–2016. Predictions have largely and consistently underestimated actual growth. (from Solar power)
Refinery, Bayport Industrial Complex, Harris County, Texas (from Oil refinery)
CPV modules on dual axis solar trackers in Golmud, China (from Solar power)
Larderello Geothermal Station, in Italy (from Geothermal power)
The Calder Hall nuclear power station in the United Kingdom, the world's first commercial nuclear power station. (from Nuclear power)
The Three Gorges Dam in Central China is the world's largest power–producing facility of any kind. (from Hydroelectricity)
Guri Dam, a hydroelectric dam in Venezuela (from Sustainable energy)
Trends in the top five natural gas-producing countries (US EIA data) (from Natural gas)
Typical composition of uranium dioxide fuel before and after approximately 3 years in the once-through nuclear fuel cycle of a LWR. (from Nuclear power)
Energy use in industry caused 24.2% of all GHG emissions in 2016. Energy use in buildings and transport caused 17.5% and 16.2% of emissions, respectively. Another 9.5% of emissions came from other energy uses and 5.8% were fugitive emissions from the production of fossil fuels. (from Sustainable energy)
The nuclear fuel cycle begins when uranium is mined, enriched, and manufactured into nuclear fuel (1), which is delivered to a nuclear power plant. After use, the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (2) or to a final repository (3). In nuclear reprocessing 95% of spent fuel can potentially be recycled to be returned to use in a power plant (4). (from Nuclear power)
Sample of kerosene (from Oil refinery)
A parabolic collector concentrates sunlight onto a tube in its focal point. (from Solar power)
A Washington, D.C. Metrobus, which runs on natural gas (from Natural gas)
Schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit as used in petroleum crude oil refineries (from Oil refinery)
Gas network emergency vehicle responding to a major fire in Kyiv, Ukraine (from Natural gas)
ExxonMobil oil refinery in Baton Rouge, Louisiana (the fourth-largest in the United States) (from Oil refinery)
Evolution of solar power production by region (from Solar power)
Nuclear fuel assemblies being inspected before entering a pressurized water reactor in the United States. (from Nuclear power)
A woman in rural Rajasthan, India, collects firewood. The use of wood and other polluting fuels for cooking causes millions of deaths each year from indoor and outdoor air pollution. (from Sustainable energy)
Enhanced geothermal system 1:Reservoir 2:Pump house 3:Heat exchanger 4:Turbine hall 5:Production well 6:Injection well 7:Hot water to district heating 8:Porous sediments 9:Observation well 10:Crystalline bedrock (from Geothermal power)
Reactor decay heat as a fraction of full power after the reactor shutdown, using two different correlations. To remove the decay heat, reactors need cooling after the shutdown of the fission reactions. A loss of the ability to remove decay heat caused the Fukushima accident. (from Nuclear power)
The outdoor section of a heat pump. In contrast to oil and gas boilers, they use electricity and are highly efficient. As such, electrification of heating can significantly reduce emissions. (from Sustainable energy)
South America (from Solar power)
Anacortes Refinery (Marathon), on the north end of March Point southeast of Anacortes, Washington, United States (from Oil refinery)
Most waste packaging, small-scale experimental fuel recycling chemistry and radiopharmaceutical refinement is conducted within remote-handled hot cells. (from Nuclear power)
Growth of renewables was 45% larger in 2020 compared to 2019, including a 90% rise in global wind capacity additions (green) and a 23% expansion of new solar photovoltaic installations (yellow). (from Sustainable energy)
Part of the Senftenberg Solarpark, a solar photovoltaic power plant located on former open-pit mining areas close to the city of Senftenberg, in Eastern Germany. The 78 MW Phase 1 of the plant was completed within three months. (from Solar power)
Electrified heat and transport are key areas of investment for the renewable energy transition. (from Sustainable energy)
Trends in the top five hydroelectricity-producing countries (from Hydroelectricity)
United States and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2006. The Megatons to Megawatts Program was the main driving force behind the sharp reduction in the quantity of nuclear weapons worldwide since the cold war ended. (from Nuclear power)
Anti-nuclear protest near nuclear waste disposal centre at Gorleben in northern Germany (from Nuclear power)
USAID's Mission Director to Pakistan, John Groarke in a group photo with the live-line trainers for Energy Policy Program - September, 2015. (from Energy policy)
The Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant in Switzerland (from Nuclear power)
motor oil (from Oil refinery)
Museum Hydroelectric power plant ″Under the Town″ in Serbia, built in 1900. (from Hydroelectricity)
Global energy usage is highly unequal. High income countries such as the United States and Canada use 100 times as much energy per capita as some of the least developed countries in Africa. (from Sustainable energy)
Neste Oil refinery in Porvoo, Finland (from Oil refinery)
A comparison of prices over time for energy from nuclear fission and from other sources.
LCOE is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime. (from Nuclear power)
Thomas Young - the first to use the term "energy" in the modern sense, in 1802. (from History of energy)
Krafla, a geothermal power station in Iceland (from Geothermal power)
Share of electricity production from solar, 2020 (from Solar power)
Crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional distillation. The fractions at the top of the fractionating column have lower boiling points than the fractions at the bottom. The heavy bottom fractions are often cracked into lighter, more useful products. All of the fractions are processed further in other refining units. (from Oil refinery)
Battery storage facility
A pipeline odorant injection station (from Natural gas)
Geothermal power center in the Usulután Department, El Salvador. (from Geothermal power)
Oil refinery in Iran (from Oil refinery)
Pile of asphalt-covered aggregate for formation into asphalt concrete (from Oil refinery)
Natural gas prices at the Henry Hub in US dollars per million BTUs (from Natural gas)
Europe (from Solar power)
Countries by natural gas proven reserves (2014), based on data from The World Factbook (from Natural gas)
World renewable energy share (2008) (from Hydroelectricity)
Cylinders of liquified petroleum gas (from Oil refinery)
Natural gas drilling rig in Texas, USA (from Natural gas)
Fire-extinguishing operations after the Texas City Refinery explosion (from Oil refinery)
South and South-East Asia (from Solar power)
Comparison of natural gas prices in Japan, United Kingdom, and United States, 2007–2011 (from Natural gas)
Measurement of the tailrace and forebay rates at the Limestone Generating Station in Manitoba, Canada. (from Hydroelectricity)
Africa and Middle East (from Solar power)
Trends in the top five geothermal electricity-generating countries, 1980–2012 (US EIA) (from Geothermal power)
The 120-MWe Nesjavellir power station in southwest Iceland (from Geothermal power)
Sample of gasoline (from Oil refinery)
Schematic flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant (from Natural gas)
Olkiluoto 3 under construction in 2009. It was the first EPR, a modernized PWR design, to start construction. (from Nuclear power)
The first light bulbs ever lit by electricity generated by nuclear power at EBR-1 at Argonne National Laboratory-West, December 20, 1951. (from Nuclear power)
Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System with all three towers under load during February 2014, with the Clark Mountain Range seen in the distance (from Solar power)
The goal of the Southern Gas Corridor, which connects the giant Shah Deniz gas field in Azerbaijan to Europe, is to reduce Europe's dependency on Russian gas. (from Energy policy)
Natural gas burner on a natural-gas-burning stove (from Natural gas)
The Ffestiniog Power Station can generate 360 MW of electricity within 60 seconds of the demand arising. (from Hydroelectricity)
Electricity production by source (from Solar power)
The Hoover Dam in the United States is a large conventional dammed-hydro facility, with an installed capacity of 2,080 MW. (from Hydroelectricity)
Sulphur (from Oil refinery)
Natural gas processing plant in Aderklaa, Lower Austria (from Natural gas)
Sample of crude oil (petroleum) (from Oil refinery)
Manhole for domestic gas supply, London, UK (from Natural gas)
Several countries and the European Union have committed to dates for all new cars to be zero-emissions vehicles. (from Sustainable energy)
Passive cooling features, such as these windcatcher towers in Iran, bring cool air into buildings without any use of energy. (from Sustainable energy)
The warming influence (called radiative forcing) of long-lived greenhouse gases has nearly doubled in 40 years, with carbon dioxide and methane being the dominant drivers of global warming. (from Natural gas)
A petrochemical refinery in Grangemouth, Scotland (from Oil refinery)
The Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator (MMRTG), used in several space missions such as the Curiosity Mars rover (from Nuclear power)
Following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, the world's worst nuclear accident since 1986, 50,000 households were displaced after radiation leaked into the air, soil and sea. Radiation checks led to bans of some shipments of vegetables and fish. (from Nuclear power)
Pico hydroelectricity in Mondulkiri, Cambodia (from Hydroelectricity)
A photovoltaic power station in California, United States
Peoples Gas Manlove Field natural gas storage area in Newcomb Township, Champaign County, Illinois. In the foreground (left) is one of the numerous wells for the underground storage area, with an LNG plant, and above ground storage tanks are in the background (right). (from Natural gas)
A breakdown of the products made from a typical barrel of US oil (from Oil refinery)
Death rates from air pollution and accidents related to energy production, measured in deaths in the past per terawatt hours (TWh) (from Nuclear power)
Global geothermal electric capacity. Upper red line is installed capacity; lower green line is realized production. (from Geothermal power)
Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity supply technologies, median values calculated by IPCC (from Nuclear power)
North America (from Solar power)
Share of electricity production from hydropower, 2020 (from Hydroelectricity)
Growth of solar PV on a semi-log scale since 1992 (from Solar power)
Proportions of the isotopes uranium-238 (blue) and uranium-235 (red) found in natural uranium and in enriched uranium for different applications. Light water reactors use 3-5% enriched uranium, while CANDU reactors work with natural uranium. (from Nuclear power)
The guided-missile cruiser USS Monterey (CG 61) receives fuel at sea (FAS) from the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS George Washington (CVN 73). (from Nuclear power)
A sugarcane plantation to produce ethanol in Brazil (from Sustainable energy)
Refinery of Slovnaft in Bratislava (from Oil refinery)
Russia is a key oil and gas supplier to Europe (from Energy policy)
Polyethylene plastic main being placed in a trench (from Natural gas)
Kenyan dairy farmer lighting a biogas lamp. Biogas produced from biomass is a renewable energy source that can be burned for cooking or light. (from Sustainable energy)
Buildings in the Solar Settlement at Schlierberg, Germany, produce more energy than they consume. They incorporate rooftop solar panels and are built for maximum energy efficiency. (from Sustainable energy)
Merowe Dam in Sudan. Hydroelectric power stations that use dams submerge large areas of land due to the requirement of a reservoir. These changes to land color or albedo, alongside certain projects that concurrently submerge rainforests, can in these specific cases result in the global warming impact, or equivalent life-cycle greenhouse gases of hydroelectricity projects, to potentially exceed that of coal power stations. (from Hydroelectricity)
For cooking, electric induction stoves are one of the most energy-efficient and safest options. (from Sustainable energy)
Sample of diesel fuel (from Oil refinery)
Schematic of the ITER tokamak under construction in France. (from Nuclear power)
Schematics of a grid-connected residential PV power system (from Solar power)
The town of Pripyat abandoned since 1986, with the Chernobyl plant and the Chernobyl New Safe Confinement arch in the distance. (from Nuclear power)
The Warwick Castle water-powered generator house, used for the generation of electricity for the castle from 1894 until 1940 (from Hydroelectricity)
Activity of spent UOx fuel in comparison to the activity of natural uranium ore over time. (from Nuclear power)
The Ikata Nuclear Power Plant, a pressurized water reactor that cools by utilizing a secondary coolant heat exchanger with a large body of water, an alternative cooling approach to large cooling towers. (from Nuclear power)
The location of shale gas compared to other types of gas deposits (from Natural gas)
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Quotations
- "My administration is committed to a leadership role on the issue of climate change. We recognize our responsibility and will meet it - at home, in our hemisphere, and in the world." – George W. Bush, 2001
- "While the Kyoto Protocol is a crucial step forward, that step is far too small. And as we consider how to go further still, there remains a frightening lack of leadership." – Kofi Annan, 2006
- "It is going to be very difficult to keep temperature increases down to between 2 and 3 degrees centigrade [3.6 - 5.4°F]. We should work very hard to do that." – Nicholas Stern, 2006
- "Halting global warming requires urgent, unprecedented international cooperation, but the needed actions are feasible and have additional benefits for human health, agriculture and the environment." – James E. Hansen, 2004
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